@phdthesis{e6486f62-dcd9-4c7e-afa3-357e7cc459a6,
  abstract     = {{This doctoral thesis explores potential source value of clay tobacco pipes made and consumed in Sweden in the eighteenth <br/>century beyond their currently applied uses as chronometric artifacts. In particular, this study is focused on exploring the ways <br/>in which clay tobacco pipes signaled socioeconomic differentiation in their contemporaneity and how such aspects may be <br/>understood based on archaeologically recovered fragments of pipes. <br/>Tobacco smoking was socially ubiquitous in eighteenth-century Sweden. It is therefore argued that the practice of tobacco <br/>smoking, similarly to other ubiquitous consumption practices, must therefore have been differentiated and differentiating <br/>depending on the socioeconomic status of its carriers. To conceptualize differentiated and differentiating smoking, the study <br/>introduces the heuristic concept of smokeways. Differentiating smokeways are believed to have left identifiable traces in the <br/>archaeological record. The study employs a source-pluralistic approach that considers manufacturing standards of the clay <br/>tobacco pipe industry, traces that users left on archaeologically recovered pipes, as well as documentary and pictorial sources<br/>relaying attitudes towards the smokeways that created these traces. <br/>Archival documents from policymakers, manufacturing descriptions, price information from different makers, census and <br/>household examination records show that by and large, the industry adapted its production to demands from both <br/>policymakers and consumers to fit notions of appropriate and recognizable smokeways. Whereas price information shows <br/>that the symbolic value of certain types of pipes may have depreciated over time, a standardization of the output of pipe <br/>factories and workshops in terms of prices, types, production quality, and pipe stem-lengths indicates that many clay tobacco <br/>pipes would have been immediately recognizable as markers of socioeconomic status in the studied period. While this <br/>homogenization has impeded precise identifications of pipes not marked with maker-specific marks, it strongly suggests that <br/>many types of pipes were successful and long-lasting indicators of socioeconomic status. <br/>Many of the attributes resulting from these explicitly socially differentiating industry standards remain observable on <br/>archaeologically recovered pipe fragments. Similarly, beyond immediate consumer choice, traces left on archaeologically <br/>recovered pipes as a result of their users’ socially differentiating smokeways are also explored. These traces include bite marks <br/>on stems, signs of reuse and mending, as well as traces of relatively brief periods use. <br/>Written and pictorial sources that relay contemporaneous attitudes towards the smokeways that resulted in these traces <br/>confirm that not only the type of pipe that a smoker used signaled status – the ways in which pipes were used are a factor to <br/>consider. The studied evidence indicates that views on appropriate, archaeologically visible, smokeways varied and shifted <br/>synchronously, diachronically, and regionally. For example, attitudes toward smokeways that resulted in bite marks on stems <br/>and pipe notches in teeth, while strongly associated with smokers on the lower end of the socioeconomic scale, appear to <br/>have shifted throughout the studied period, appear to have become increasingly acceptable as the century progressed. Views <br/>on blackened or seasoned clay pipes also appear to have varied throughout the studied period, with increased acceptance <br/>possibly traceable to the diffusion of significantly more expensive seasoned meerschaum bowls. <br/>This research demonstrates how, by recording attributes related to relative price along with traces of use and modifications, <br/>it is possible to utilize archaeologically recovered fragments of clay tobacco pipes as evidence of socially differentiating <br/>smokeways. In recording, presenting, and discussing such attributes, when coupled to historical evidence, we may reach a <br/>more detailed understanding of past expressions and experiences of differentiation, inequality, and social ambition.}},
  author       = {{Bergman Carter, Robert}},
  isbn         = {{978-91-90055-94-6}},
  issn         = {{1653-1183}},
  keywords     = {{Clay tobacco pipes analysis; Clay tobacco pipes; Historical archaeology; Smokeways; Archaeology of consumption; Tobacco smoking; Clay tobacco pipe manufacturing; Archaeology of smoking; Eighteenth-century archaeology; Swedish archaeology; Industrial archaeology}},
  language     = {{eng}},
  month        = {{09}},
  publisher    = {{Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Lund University}},
  school       = {{Lund University}},
  series       = {{Lund Studies in Historical Archaeology}},
  title        = {{When the Smoke Clears : Clay Tobacco Pipes and Smokeways in Eighteenth-Century Sweden}},
  url          = {{https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/260209346/Avhandling_Robert_Bergman_Carter.pdf}},
  volume       = {{27}},
  year         = {{2026}},
}