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Ett lagstadgat skatteavdrag för klimatkompensation - En låg kostnad för staten med hög potential för klimatet?

Norstedt, Jesper LU (2019) JURM02 20192
Department of Law
Faculty of Law
Abstract (Swedish)
Huvudsyftet med detta examensarbete är att utreda huruvida det borde införas ett lagstadgat skatteavdrag för klimatkompensation i svensk skattelagstiftning. För att uppfylla detta huvud-syfte har inledningsvis det gällande rättsläget kring avdragsrätt avhandlats utifrån lagstiftning och praxis, följt av en redogörelse för rättsläget kring avdragsrätt för klimatkompensation samt det närliggande området sponsring. Huvudregeln för avdragsrätt finns i 16 kap. 1 § 1 st. inkomstskattelagen och innebär att utgifter för att förvärva eller bibehålla inkomster ska dras av som en kostnad. Denna regel kompletteras av 9 kap. 2 § inkomstskattelagen som innebär att utgifter för gåvor inte får dras av. Utifrån dessa regler har det i praxis medgetts avdrag... (More)
Huvudsyftet med detta examensarbete är att utreda huruvida det borde införas ett lagstadgat skatteavdrag för klimatkompensation i svensk skattelagstiftning. För att uppfylla detta huvud-syfte har inledningsvis det gällande rättsläget kring avdragsrätt avhandlats utifrån lagstiftning och praxis, följt av en redogörelse för rättsläget kring avdragsrätt för klimatkompensation samt det närliggande området sponsring. Huvudregeln för avdragsrätt finns i 16 kap. 1 § 1 st. inkomstskattelagen och innebär att utgifter för att förvärva eller bibehålla inkomster ska dras av som en kostnad. Denna regel kompletteras av 9 kap. 2 § inkomstskattelagen som innebär att utgifter för gåvor inte får dras av. Utifrån dessa regler har det i praxis medgetts avdrag för sponsring om det sponsrande företaget direkt eller indirekt har mottagit någon form av mot-prestation från mottagaren. Vidare har Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen under de senaste åren både nekat och medgett avdrag i mål om klimatkompensation. I det uppmärksammade Arla-målet som meddelades 2018 medgavs Arla skatteavdrag för kostnader hänförliga till klimat-kompensation, då det ansågs utgöra marknadsföringskostnader som i regel är avdragsgillt.

I examensarbetet har även behovet av ett lagstadgat skatteavdrag diskuterats, främst utifrån ett företags- och miljöperspektiv samt utifrån ovan nämnda praxis. I sammanhanget har även eventuella konsekvenser av ett införande av sådan lagstiftning diskuterats; såväl offentlig-finansiella som miljö- och klimatmässiga. Sammantaget kan sägas att det finnas ett behov, åtminstone för en del företag. De förväntade effekterna som införandet av ett skatteavdrag för klimatkompensation skulle ha är övervägande positiva.

Vidare har tre olika typer av klimatkompensation avhandlats. Dessa är klimatkompensation genom borttagande av utsläppsrätter inom ramen för EU:s system för handel med utsläppsrätter, klimatkompensation genom förvärv och annullering av krediter inom ramen för FN:s Clean Development Mechanism-system samt för klimatkompensation genom förvärv och annullering av krediter i så kallade Voluntary Emission Reductions-projekt. Klimatkompensation inom ramen för EU:s handelssystem med utsläppsrätter fungerar på så vis att ett företag förvärvar motsvarande mängd utsläppsrätter som de avser att klimatkompensera och markerar dem sedan som använda i unionsregistret. En utsläppsrätt motsvarar ett ton koldioxidekvivalenter. När ett företag förvärvar och sedermera tar bort en utsläppsrätt uppstår klimatnytta eftersom ingen annan kan nyttja den utsläppsrätten. Systemet har många fördelar, varför regeringen valde att använda sig av detta i ett förslag på ett skatteavdrag för klimatkompensation som lämnades 2016. Systemet har dock en väsentlig nackdel, nämligen att det historiskt sett har funnits ett överskott av utsläppsrätter. Huruvida så blir fallet även i framtiden återstår att se, då en ny handelsperiod med utsläppsrätter påbörjas 2021. Clean Development Mechanism är en av de flexibla mekanismerna i Kyotoprotokollet som fungerar som ett verktyg för medlemsstaterna att minska växthusgasutsläpp i andra länder än sitt eget. Projekt startas oftast i utvecklingsländer och överses av FN och andra oberoende övervakare. Såväl stater som enskilda kan investera i dessa projekt i utbyte mot utsläppskrediter. För att använda systemet för att klimatkompensera förvärvar företag utsläppskrediter – ofta genom en mellanhand – motsvarande den mängd växthusgaser som de avser att kompensera. Dessa krediter annulleras sedan i en databas, med effekten att de inte kan nyttjas av någon annan eller säljas igen. Klimat-kompensation genom att förvärva krediter i Voluntary Emission Reduction liknar till stor del klimatkompensation genom Clean Development Mechanism-systemet. Projekten är dock oreglerade med innebörden att det inte finns något överstatligt organ som övervakar dem. För att de klimatkompenserande företaget ska vara säkra på att deras pengar faktiskt gör något nytta finns det därför ett antal privata organisationer som certifierar projekt, och på så vis garanterar klimatnyttan. I detta examensarbete har certifieringarna Gold Standard, och Plan Vivo avhandlats.

De olika typerna av klimatkompensation har alla för- och nackdelar. Trots att de olika typerna är av varierande kvalitet torde avdrag kunna medges för klimatkompensation med var och en av dem, så länge klimatnyttan av klimatkompensationen kan säkerställas. Detta kan göras genom att utsläppsrätten eller utsläppskrediten markeras som annullerad i en databas.

Examensarbetet innehåller även en redogörelse för huruvida ett lagstadgat avdrag för klimatkompensation hade varit förenlig med gällande rätt, eller om införandet hade lett till en regelkonflikt med ovan nämnda bestämmelser i inkomstskattelagen. En tolkning av de aktuella bestämmelserna och praxis tyder på att ett brett skatteavdrag som omfattar samtliga företag, oavsett om de har en ekologisk profil eller inte, och som omfattar all klimatkompensation oavsett syfte, inte hade varit förenlig med gällande rätt. Ett sådant avdrag hade vid tillämpning riskerat att orsaka en regelkonflikt med ovan nämnda bestämmelser. Ett avdrag måste därför utformas som ett undantag.

Examensarbetet avslutas med sammanfattande slutsatser om hur skatteavdraget borde utformas samt vilka omständigheter som bör beaktas vid införande av ett sådant avdrag. Utöver att utformningen motiveras, och på så sätt knyter ihop ovanstående delar, innehåller avsnittet även ett förslag på hur det tilltänkta skatteavdraget hade kunnat se ut i form av lagtext. (Less)
Abstract
The main purpose of this thesis is to analyse whether there is a need for a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting in Swedish tax law. In order to fulfil the main purpose of this theses, the legal position of tax deductions in Swedish law has been accounted for, both in regard to legislation and case law. Further on, the legal position of tax deductions for carbon offsetting and sponsoring has been discussed. The general principle for tax deductions in Swedish tax law can be found in the 1st paragraph of the 16th chapter in the Income Tax Act, which states that tax deduction can only be allowed if the purpose of the expense is to acquire or maintain an income. This rule is complemented by the 2nd paragraph of the 9th chapter in the... (More)
The main purpose of this thesis is to analyse whether there is a need for a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting in Swedish tax law. In order to fulfil the main purpose of this theses, the legal position of tax deductions in Swedish law has been accounted for, both in regard to legislation and case law. Further on, the legal position of tax deductions for carbon offsetting and sponsoring has been discussed. The general principle for tax deductions in Swedish tax law can be found in the 1st paragraph of the 16th chapter in the Income Tax Act, which states that tax deduction can only be allowed if the purpose of the expense is to acquire or maintain an income. This rule is complemented by the 2nd paragraph of the 9th chapter in the Income Tax Act, which states that expenses for gifts cannot be deducted. Further, the Supreme Administrative Court, has both allowed and refused tax deductions in cases regarding carbon offsetting. In the Arla case, the company was allowed a tax deduction for expenses attributable to carbon offsetting, as it was considered to be a marketing cost that usually is deductible.

Ahead, the need for a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting has been discussed, primarily with regards to above mentioned case law. In the same context, the ramifications of the adoption of a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting has been discussed, both from a public financial standpoint as well as an environmental point of view. Altogether, a need for a tax deduction does exists, at least for some companies. The expected ramifications of the adoption of a tax deduction for carbon offsetting is predominantly positive.

In this thesis, three types of carbon offsetting have been discussed. These are carbon offsetting by purchasing and annulling emission allowances within the EU Emission Trading Scheme, carbon offsetting by purchasing emission credits through Clean Development Mechanism which is a scheme run by the UN, and carbon offsetting by purchasing Voluntary Emission Reduction credits through unregulated projects. Carbon offsetting through the EU Emission Trading Scheme is carried out in the following way. A company purchases EU emission allowances equal to the amount of emission that they intends to offset and then mark them as used in the union registry. An EU emission allowance is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents. A positive impact on the climate is accomplished when a company purchases and then marks the allowance as used, because it hinders someone else from using the allowance by actually emitting the greenhouse gas. The scheme has many pros, which led the government to publish a legislative proposal for a tax deduction using the EU Emission Trading Scheme in 2016. However, the scheme has a major flaw, namely that there has previously been a surplus of emission allowances which negates the positive impact on the climate that the carbon offsetting has. A new trading period will begin in 2021, time will have to tell what happens then. Clean Development Mechanism is one of the flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. The flexible mechanisms are tools for the signatories to co-operate to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in other countries than their own. The projects are governed by the UN and independent bodies. Both states and companies can invest in the projects and in return receive emission credits. In order to carbon offset through the Clean Development Mechanism scheme, a company purchases the emission credits – often through a third party – equal to the amount of emission that they intend to offset. These credits can then be marked as annulled in a database, with the effect that they cannot be used or sold again. Carbon offsetting through Voluntary Emission Reduction is not unlike offsetting through the Clean Development Mechanism scheme. There is however a major difference, the project is not governed by a supranational body like the UN. In order for the carbon offsetting companies to be sure that the offsetting has a positive impact on the climate the projects can be certified by a number of private organisations that guarantee the positive climate impact that the projects have. In this thesis two of those certifications are mentioned; Gold Standard and Plan Vivo.

All three methods of carbon offsetting have positive and negative traits. Despite the fact that the methods of carbon offsetting have a varying quality, the conclusion is that a tax deduction should be allowed for all three types of carbon offsetting, as long as the positive effect they have on the climate can be verified. The positive effect can be verified by marking the emission allowance or emission credit as used in a database.

This thesis also contains a discussion on whether a statutory tax deduction is compatible with the national tax law, or whether the tax deduction rule would conflict with the above mentioned paragraphs of the Income Tax Act. An interpretation of said paragraphs along with relevant case law has led to the following conclusion. An extensive tax deduction rule that allows all companies, whether they have an ecological profile or not, and all carbon offsetting regardless of it purpose, would not be compatible with the current legal position. The reason being that the application of such a tax deduction rule would risk conflicting with the above mentioned rules of the Income Tax Act. Therefore, an exemption has to be made.

The thesis is concluded by a summary along with a conclusion regarding how the tax deduction should be structured and what conditions need to be regarded when such a rule is adopted. Besides discussing how the tax deduction should be structured, and thus tying together the different sections of the thesis, this final segment includes a proposal for how a tax deduction for carbon offsetting could be phrased in the words of the act. (Less)
Please use this url to cite or link to this publication:
author
Norstedt, Jesper LU
supervisor
organization
alternative title
A statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting - A tax deduction with great potential at a low cost?
course
JURM02 20192
year
type
H3 - Professional qualifications (4 Years - )
subject
keywords
skatterätt, tax law, klimatkompensation, carbon offsetting, skatteavdrag, tax deduction
language
Swedish
id
9000351
date added to LUP
2020-01-31 17:21:26
date last changed
2020-01-31 17:21:26
@misc{9000351,
  abstract     = {{The main purpose of this thesis is to analyse whether there is a need for a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting in Swedish tax law. In order to fulfil the main purpose of this theses, the legal position of tax deductions in Swedish law has been accounted for, both in regard to legislation and case law. Further on, the legal position of tax deductions for carbon offsetting and sponsoring has been discussed. The general principle for tax deductions in Swedish tax law can be found in the 1st paragraph of the 16th chapter in the Income Tax Act, which states that tax deduction can only be allowed if the purpose of the expense is to acquire or maintain an income. This rule is complemented by the 2nd paragraph of the 9th chapter in the Income Tax Act, which states that expenses for gifts cannot be deducted. Further, the Supreme Administrative Court, has both allowed and refused tax deductions in cases regarding carbon offsetting. In the Arla case, the company was allowed a tax deduction for expenses attributable to carbon offsetting, as it was considered to be a marketing cost that usually is deductible.

Ahead, the need for a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting has been discussed, primarily with regards to above mentioned case law. In the same context, the ramifications of the adoption of a statutory tax deduction for carbon offsetting has been discussed, both from a public financial standpoint as well as an environmental point of view. Altogether, a need for a tax deduction does exists, at least for some companies. The expected ramifications of the adoption of a tax deduction for carbon offsetting is predominantly positive.

In this thesis, three types of carbon offsetting have been discussed. These are carbon offsetting by purchasing and annulling emission allowances within the EU Emission Trading Scheme, carbon offsetting by purchasing emission credits through Clean Development Mechanism which is a scheme run by the UN, and carbon offsetting by purchasing Voluntary Emission Reduction credits through unregulated projects. Carbon offsetting through the EU Emission Trading Scheme is carried out in the following way. A company purchases EU emission allowances equal to the amount of emission that they intends to offset and then mark them as used in the union registry. An EU emission allowance is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents. A positive impact on the climate is accomplished when a company purchases and then marks the allowance as used, because it hinders someone else from using the allowance by actually emitting the greenhouse gas. The scheme has many pros, which led the government to publish a legislative proposal for a tax deduction using the EU Emission Trading Scheme in 2016. However, the scheme has a major flaw, namely that there has previously been a surplus of emission allowances which negates the positive impact on the climate that the carbon offsetting has. A new trading period will begin in 2021, time will have to tell what happens then. Clean Development Mechanism is one of the flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. The flexible mechanisms are tools for the signatories to co-operate to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in other countries than their own. The projects are governed by the UN and independent bodies. Both states and companies can invest in the projects and in return receive emission credits. In order to carbon offset through the Clean Development Mechanism scheme, a company purchases the emission credits – often through a third party – equal to the amount of emission that they intend to offset. These credits can then be marked as annulled in a database, with the effect that they cannot be used or sold again. Carbon offsetting through Voluntary Emission Reduction is not unlike offsetting through the Clean Development Mechanism scheme. There is however a major difference, the project is not governed by a supranational body like the UN. In order for the carbon offsetting companies to be sure that the offsetting has a positive impact on the climate the projects can be certified by a number of private organisations that guarantee the positive climate impact that the projects have. In this thesis two of those certifications are mentioned; Gold Standard and Plan Vivo.

All three methods of carbon offsetting have positive and negative traits. Despite the fact that the methods of carbon offsetting have a varying quality, the conclusion is that a tax deduction should be allowed for all three types of carbon offsetting, as long as the positive effect they have on the climate can be verified. The positive effect can be verified by marking the emission allowance or emission credit as used in a database.

This thesis also contains a discussion on whether a statutory tax deduction is compatible with the national tax law, or whether the tax deduction rule would conflict with the above mentioned paragraphs of the Income Tax Act. An interpretation of said paragraphs along with relevant case law has led to the following conclusion. An extensive tax deduction rule that allows all companies, whether they have an ecological profile or not, and all carbon offsetting regardless of it purpose, would not be compatible with the current legal position. The reason being that the application of such a tax deduction rule would risk conflicting with the above mentioned rules of the Income Tax Act. Therefore, an exemption has to be made.

The thesis is concluded by a summary along with a conclusion regarding how the tax deduction should be structured and what conditions need to be regarded when such a rule is adopted. Besides discussing how the tax deduction should be structured, and thus tying together the different sections of the thesis, this final segment includes a proposal for how a tax deduction for carbon offsetting could be phrased in the words of the act.}},
  author       = {{Norstedt, Jesper}},
  language     = {{swe}},
  note         = {{Student Paper}},
  title        = {{Ett lagstadgat skatteavdrag för klimatkompensation - En låg kostnad för staten med hög potential för klimatet?}},
  year         = {{2019}},
}