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Illegal fishing in West Africa and EU accountability

Berner, Henrietta LU (2024) JURM02 20242
Department of Law
Faculty of Law
Abstract
Exacerbated by climate change and general overfishing, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing poses a serious threat to marine biodiversity globally. One particularly affected region is West Africa, where coastal States have historically possessed abundant fishing resources within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) in the Atlantic Ocean. The reliance on industrial-scale fishing, largely driven by foreign fishing fleets, has contributed to col-lapsing fish stocks and the marginalization of local artisanal fisheries. In addi-tion, IUU fishing accounts for approximately 40% of the region’s total catch, underscoring the widespread prevalence and severity of the issue. IUU fish-ing activities involve violations of various legal... (More)
Exacerbated by climate change and general overfishing, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing poses a serious threat to marine biodiversity globally. One particularly affected region is West Africa, where coastal States have historically possessed abundant fishing resources within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) in the Atlantic Ocean. The reliance on industrial-scale fishing, largely driven by foreign fishing fleets, has contributed to col-lapsing fish stocks and the marginalization of local artisanal fisheries. In addi-tion, IUU fishing accounts for approximately 40% of the region’s total catch, underscoring the widespread prevalence and severity of the issue. IUU fish-ing activities involve violations of various legal instruments at different levels and by different actors. This thesis focuses on violations of the United Na-tions Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the primary legal framework governing the law of the sea and binding upon the EU as well as West African states.

The EU is one of the world’s largest importers of fishery and aquaculture products, with imports covering 60% of its seafood consumption. Moreover, the EU has longstanding fishery relations with third countries, including West African states, granting access of the EU long distant fleet to their fishing re-sources. Despite EU commitments to sustainable fisheries management, evi-dence suggests that products derived from IUU fishing continue to enter the EU market in strikingly large quantities. Additionally, vessels in the joint EU long-distance fleet have been suspected of engaging in IUU-related activities in West Africa. This is among other things facilitated by inadequate monitor-ing and enforcement of various international and national laws within West African EEZs, as well as by circumvention methods such as malicious reflagging, joint ventures and flags of convenience. Drawing on UNCLOS and ITLOS case law, the primary obligation in preventing IUU fishing in a specific EEZ lies with the coastal State, which must ensure the sustainable exploitation of marine resources within its EEZs.

Allegations of widespread IUU activities in the EEZs of West African coastal States have prompted various EU measures to combat IUU fishing and pre-vent its entry into the EU market. A key feature of the external dimension of the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy is the carding scheme, established through the EU IUU Regulation. This framework allows the European Com-mission to identify third States that do not sufficiently cooperate in combating IUU fishing, meaning notably not living up to its obligations under UNCLOS as coastal, flag or port States. For example, Sierra Leone has been under a yellow card warning since 2016, Liberia since 2017, Ghana since 2021 and most recently Senegal since May 2024, reflecting EU concerns of widespread IUU related activities within these States’ EEZs and inadequate monitoring and enforcement. However, the carding scheme has shown limited substantive impact, primarily restricting new Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agree-ments (SFPAs) negotiations while not preventing private agreements between individual EU vessels and the carded State, nor the continued importation of fishery products from the concerned EEZ. Except for in relation Cameroon, the EU has refrained from imposing actual trade restrictions due to IUU fish-ing in West Africa, which also is a feature of the IUU Regulation. Trade re-strictions, if applied, would impose bans on fish imports from the concerned coastal State’s EEZ, and moreover directly prohibit EU vessels from operating therewithin.

As noted, the obligation to prevent IUU-fishing in a given EEZ largely falls on the coastal State, thus in the context of this theses on West African states. The obligations of the EU in its capacity notably as flag and port State are hence secondary to those of West African states. The flexibility of certain provisions of the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organi-zations (DARIO), particularly the interpretative and debated scope of Article 14 on aid and assistance in the commission of an internationally wrongful act by another state, allows for new legal paths for addressing accountability for the failure of West African states to comply with its UNCLOS obligations related to sustainable fisheries.

This thesis suggests that EU actions related to IUU fishing in West Africa amount to aid and assistance to violations of international law committed by West African States, in their failure to ensure compliance with UNCLOS in their EEZs. The actions to be consider aid and assistance of the EU, consid-ered their overall impact, include permitting the import of fish at high risk of being caught through IUU fishing, issuing licenses for fleet operations in wa-ters deemed inadequately monitored and controlled, financially supporting third States that are failing to live up to its obligations under UNCLOS, as well as allowing EU industrial fishing through the maintenance of fisheries agreements and an arbitrary application of its carding scheme based on eco-nomic interest in the West African region.

However, due to the uncertainty surrounding the legal status of DARIO and the lack of clarity on the precise scope of international responsibility deriving from aid and assistance, the assessments in this thesis remain largely prelimi-nary and exploratory. The primary intention is to provoke academic discus-sion and provide a foundation for further research on EU accountability for ongoing UNCLOS violations related to IUU fishing in West Africa. (Less)
Abstract (Swedish)
Tillsammans med klimatförändringar och omfattande överfiske utgör IUU-fiske (olagligt, orapporterat och oreglerat fiske) ett allvarligt hot mot den
marina biodiversiteten globalt. En särskilt drabbad region är Västafrika, där
kuststater historiskt har haft rikliga fiskeresurser inom sina exklusiva
ekonomiska zoner (EEZ) i Atlanten. Den ökande förekomsten av industriellt
fiske, till stor del representerad av utländska fiskeflottor, har bidragit till
kollapsande fiskebestånd och marginalisering av lokala småskaliga
fiskenäringar. IUU-fiske står för cirka 40 % av den totala fångsten i
regionen – något som understryker både problemets utbredning och allvar.
IUU-fiske inkluderar överträdelser av olika regelverk på flera nivåer och av
... (More)
Tillsammans med klimatförändringar och omfattande överfiske utgör IUU-fiske (olagligt, orapporterat och oreglerat fiske) ett allvarligt hot mot den
marina biodiversiteten globalt. En särskilt drabbad region är Västafrika, där
kuststater historiskt har haft rikliga fiskeresurser inom sina exklusiva
ekonomiska zoner (EEZ) i Atlanten. Den ökande förekomsten av industriellt
fiske, till stor del representerad av utländska fiskeflottor, har bidragit till
kollapsande fiskebestånd och marginalisering av lokala småskaliga
fiskenäringar. IUU-fiske står för cirka 40 % av den totala fångsten i
regionen – något som understryker både problemets utbredning och allvar.
IUU-fiske inkluderar överträdelser av olika regelverk på flera nivåer och av
olika aktörer. Den här uppsatsen fokuserar på överträdelser av Förenta
nationernas havsrättskonvention, det primära rättsliga ramverket inom
havsrätten.

EU är en av världens största importörer av fisk- och skaldjursprodukter. 60
% av unionens fisk- och skaldjurskonsumtion täcks av import. EU
upprätthåller sedan långt tillbaka handelsrelationer kopplat till fiske med
tredjeländer, inklusive västafrikanska stater, vilket ger EU:s flotta tillgång
till fiskeresurser i unionsexterna vatten. Trots EU:s åtaganden för hållbart
fiske globalt, når anmärkningsvärt stora mängder av IUU-associerad fisk
EU:s inre marknad. Dessutom anklagas fartyg inom den gemensamma EU-flottan för att vara involverade i IUU-relaterade aktiviteter i Västafrikanska
EEZs. Den här situationen möjliggörs bland annat av bristande övervakning
och efterlevnad av olika internationella och nationella regelverk inom
Västafrikas EEZs, samt av vitt förekommande metoder för kringgående av
gällande regelverk. Sådana metoder innefattar strategiskt omflaggning av
fiskefartyg, så kallade joint ventures och bruk av bekvämlighetsflagg.

Otillräcklig övervaknings- och verkställighetskapacitet bland västafrikanska
stater har gett upphov till bristande efterlevnad av FN:s havsrättskonvention.
Havsrättskonventionen stadgar diverse skyldigheter och rättigheter inom
fiskeri för de undertecknande parterna, där inkluderat EU. Enligt
havsrättskonventionen samt rättspraxis från Internationella
havsrättsdomstolen (ITLOS) ligger det primära ansvaret för att förhindra
IUU-fiske hos kuststaterna, vilka måste säkerställa en hållbar utvinning av
marina resurser inom sina EEZ.

Anklagelser om utbredda IUU-aktiviteter inom EEZs i Västafrikas
kuststater har lett till olika EU-åtgärder för att bekämpa IUU-fiske och
förhindra dess inträde på EU:s inre marknad. En central del av den externa
dimensionen av EU:s gemensamma fiskeripolicy är en varningsmekanism,
inrättat genom EU:s IUU-förordning. Detta system gör det möjligt för EU-kommissionen att identifiera tredjeländer som inte anses samarbeta
tillräckligt i bekämpningen av IUU-fiske genom att inte uppfylla sina
skyldigheter under havsrättskonventionen som kust-, flagg- eller hamnstat.
Denna mekanism innefattar möjligheten att dela ut gula och röda kort till
tredjeländer. Exempelvis har Sierra Leone varit under ett gult kort sedan
2016, Liberia sedan 2017, Ghana sedan 2021 och senast Senegal sedan maj
2024, något som speglar EU:s egna farhågor om omfattande IUU-relaterade
aktiviteter inom dessa staters EEZs. Regelverket har emellertid uppvisat
begränsad konkret inverkan på utbredningen av IUU-fiske samt dess
förekomst på den europeiska marknaden. Den direkta konsekvensen av ett
gul kort är att nya förhandlingar om fiskeavtal mellan kuststaten och EU
(SFPAs) stoppas. Detta förhindrar inte att privata fiskeavtal sluts mellan
enskilda EU-aktörer och den varnade staten. Import av fisk- och
skaldjursprodukter från den berörda EEZ begränsas inte heller genom
utfärdandet av ett gult kort. EU har med undantag för Kamerun avstått från
att införa faktiska handelsrestriktioner med anledning av IUU-fiske i
Västafrika trots att detta är möjligt under IUU-förordningen. När
handelsrestriktioner införs, till skillnad från utfärdandet av ett gult kort,
medför detta förbud mot import av fisk från den berörda kuststatens EEZ,
samt ett direkt förbud för EU-fartyg att verka där.

Vissa bestämmelser i Draft Articles on the Responsibility for International
Organizations (DARIO), såsom artikel 14 etablerande ansvar för aid and
assistance till en annan stats brott mot internationell rätt, öppnar upp för nya
juridiska angreppssätt i förhållande till den ovan beskrivna situationen av
IUU-fiske i Västafrika. Denna uppsats föreslår att EU:s agerande utgör aid
and assistance till de brott mot internationell rätt som begås av
västafrikanska stater genom misslyckandet att säkerställa efterlevnad av
havsrättskonventionen inom sina EEZ. De handlingar som kan betraktas
som aid and assistance under artikel 14 DARIO, sett i sin helhet, inkluderar
tillåtandet av import av fisk som löper hög risk för att ha fångats genom
IUU-fiske, utfärdandet av licenser för EU-flottans verksamhet i vatten som
bedöms vara otillräckligt övervakade och kontrollerade, ekonomiskt
understödjande av tredjeländer som misslyckas med att uppfylla sina
skyldigheter under havsrättskonventionen, samt möjliggörandet av EU:s
industriella fiske i dessa vatten genom upprätthållandet av fiskeriavtal och
en godtycklig tillämpning av EU:s IUU-regelverk.

Jag drar i denna uppsats slutsatsen att artikel 14 i DARIO sannolikt är
tillämplig till följd av EU:s övergripande inblandning och roll i illegal
fiskeverksamhet inom västafrikanska EEZ. Denna slutsats medför
internationellt ansvar för aid and assistance för EU. Dock, med tanke på
osäkerheten kring DARIO:s rättsliga status och den icke fastställda
räckvidden av ansvar vid aid and assistance, förblir de bedömningar som
görs i denna avhandling i viss mån av preliminär och experimentell
karaktär. Den primära avsikten är att främja akademisk diskussion på ämnet
samt skapa underlag för vidare forskning om EU:s internationella ansvar för
pågående överträdelser av havsrättskonventionen kopplade till IUU-fiske i
Västafrika. (Less)
Please use this url to cite or link to this publication:
author
Berner, Henrietta LU
supervisor
organization
course
JURM02 20242
year
type
H3 - Professional qualifications (4 Years - )
subject
keywords
Public International Law, the Law of the Sea, International responsibility of International Organizations, DARIO, EU fisheries policy, IUU fishing in West Africa.
language
English
id
9186391
date added to LUP
2025-03-26 12:00:06
date last changed
2025-03-26 12:00:06
@misc{9186391,
  abstract     = {{Exacerbated by climate change and general overfishing, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing poses a serious threat to marine biodiversity globally. One particularly affected region is West Africa, where coastal States have historically possessed abundant fishing resources within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) in the Atlantic Ocean. The reliance on industrial-scale fishing, largely driven by foreign fishing fleets, has contributed to col-lapsing fish stocks and the marginalization of local artisanal fisheries. In addi-tion, IUU fishing accounts for approximately 40% of the region’s total catch, underscoring the widespread prevalence and severity of the issue. IUU fish-ing activities involve violations of various legal instruments at different levels and by different actors. This thesis focuses on violations of the United Na-tions Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the primary legal framework governing the law of the sea and binding upon the EU as well as West African states. 

The EU is one of the world’s largest importers of fishery and aquaculture products, with imports covering 60% of its seafood consumption. Moreover, the EU has longstanding fishery relations with third countries, including West African states, granting access of the EU long distant fleet to their fishing re-sources. Despite EU commitments to sustainable fisheries management, evi-dence suggests that products derived from IUU fishing continue to enter the EU market in strikingly large quantities. Additionally, vessels in the joint EU long-distance fleet have been suspected of engaging in IUU-related activities in West Africa. This is among other things facilitated by inadequate monitor-ing and enforcement of various international and national laws within West African EEZs, as well as by circumvention methods such as malicious reflagging, joint ventures and flags of convenience. Drawing on UNCLOS and ITLOS case law, the primary obligation in preventing IUU fishing in a specific EEZ lies with the coastal State, which must ensure the sustainable exploitation of marine resources within its EEZs. 

Allegations of widespread IUU activities in the EEZs of West African coastal States have prompted various EU measures to combat IUU fishing and pre-vent its entry into the EU market. A key feature of the external dimension of the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy is the carding scheme, established through the EU IUU Regulation. This framework allows the European Com-mission to identify third States that do not sufficiently cooperate in combating IUU fishing, meaning notably not living up to its obligations under UNCLOS as coastal, flag or port States. For example, Sierra Leone has been under a yellow card warning since 2016, Liberia since 2017, Ghana since 2021 and most recently Senegal since May 2024, reflecting EU concerns of widespread IUU related activities within these States’ EEZs and inadequate monitoring and enforcement. However, the carding scheme has shown limited substantive impact, primarily restricting new Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agree-ments (SFPAs) negotiations while not preventing private agreements between individual EU vessels and the carded State, nor the continued importation of fishery products from the concerned EEZ. Except for in relation Cameroon, the EU has refrained from imposing actual trade restrictions due to IUU fish-ing in West Africa, which also is a feature of the IUU Regulation. Trade re-strictions, if applied, would impose bans on fish imports from the concerned coastal State’s EEZ, and moreover directly prohibit EU vessels from operating therewithin.

As noted, the obligation to prevent IUU-fishing in a given EEZ largely falls on the coastal State, thus in the context of this theses on West African states. The obligations of the EU in its capacity notably as flag and port State are hence secondary to those of West African states. The flexibility of certain provisions of the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organi-zations (DARIO), particularly the interpretative and debated scope of Article 14 on aid and assistance in the commission of an internationally wrongful act by another state, allows for new legal paths for addressing accountability for the failure of West African states to comply with its UNCLOS obligations related to sustainable fisheries. 

This thesis suggests that EU actions related to IUU fishing in West Africa amount to aid and assistance to violations of international law committed by West African States, in their failure to ensure compliance with UNCLOS in their EEZs. The actions to be consider aid and assistance of the EU, consid-ered their overall impact, include permitting the import of fish at high risk of being caught through IUU fishing, issuing licenses for fleet operations in wa-ters deemed inadequately monitored and controlled, financially supporting third States that are failing to live up to its obligations under UNCLOS, as well as allowing EU industrial fishing through the maintenance of fisheries agreements and an arbitrary application of its carding scheme based on eco-nomic interest in the West African region. 

However, due to the uncertainty surrounding the legal status of DARIO and the lack of clarity on the precise scope of international responsibility deriving from aid and assistance, the assessments in this thesis remain largely prelimi-nary and exploratory. The primary intention is to provoke academic discus-sion and provide a foundation for further research on EU accountability for ongoing UNCLOS violations related to IUU fishing in West Africa.}},
  author       = {{Berner, Henrietta}},
  language     = {{eng}},
  note         = {{Student Paper}},
  title        = {{Illegal fishing in West Africa and EU accountability}},
  year         = {{2024}},
}