Labour regime changes and workers’ social protection : A study of the 3Ts small-scale mining sector formalisation process in Rwanda
(2025)- Abstract
- This study explores a common issue in developing countries – the persistence of informal labour relations when the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector is brought under state control. It investigates this through a study of formalisation reforms in Rwanda’s 3Ts (tin, tantalum, tungsten) small-scale mining sector, which intensified from 2010. The research aims to explain the role that labour, as both a social category and an economic factor, plays in shaping the formalisation process, and how the incorporation of informal labour affects access to social protection, a benefit typically entailed in the state regulation of economic sectors.
The study finds that Rwanda’s formalisation efforts have primarily focused on... (More) - This study explores a common issue in developing countries – the persistence of informal labour relations when the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector is brought under state control. It investigates this through a study of formalisation reforms in Rwanda’s 3Ts (tin, tantalum, tungsten) small-scale mining sector, which intensified from 2010. The research aims to explain the role that labour, as both a social category and an economic factor, plays in shaping the formalisation process, and how the incorporation of informal labour affects access to social protection, a benefit typically entailed in the state regulation of economic sectors.
The study finds that Rwanda’s formalisation efforts have primarily focused on controlling the mineral production process by establishing and regulating investors’ cooperatives and companies, while largely leaving the workforce informal. Grounded in analytical frameworks from the literature on informal economy regulation, labour regime analysis, and social protection in development policy, the study offers a novel analysis of these findings. Contrary to the prevailing view in ASM literature – that informal labour in formalised sectors reflects policy failure or incomplete reform – this research shows that, in Rwanda, workforce informality has played a facilitative role in achieving the country’s high rate of formalisation.
In Rwanda, while formalisation has brought some benefits to miners, such as improved workplace safety standards and a general sense of operational security, access to legally mandated social protections, such as accident insurance, remains limited due to persistent labour informality, ultimately disadvantaging miners. Conceptually, this study contributes to ASM research by highlighting the link between state regulation of production and social protection – thus, the intersection of economic and social policy. Methodologically, it advances a politicised analysis of formalisation, moving beyond “institutional (in)effectiveness” explanations to show how ASM regulation entails trade-offs with economic profitability and sectoral growth. (Less) - Abstract (Swedish)
- I denna studie undersöks en vanlig fråga i utvecklingsländer - att informella arbetsrelationer kvarstår när den småskaliga gruvsektorn (ASM) ställs under statlig kontroll. Detta undersöks genom en studie av formaliseringsreformer i Rwandas 3Ts-sektor (tenn, tantal, volfram) för småskalig gruvdrift, som intensifierades från 2010. Forskningen syftar till att förklara den roll som arbetskraft, som både en social kategori och en ekonomisk faktor, spelar i formandet av formaliseringsprocessen, och hur införlivandet av informell arbetskraft påverkar tillgången till socialt skydd, en förmån som vanligtvis medför statlig reglering av ekonomiska sektorer.
Studien visar att Rwandas formaliseringsinsatser främst har fokuserat på att... (More) - I denna studie undersöks en vanlig fråga i utvecklingsländer - att informella arbetsrelationer kvarstår när den småskaliga gruvsektorn (ASM) ställs under statlig kontroll. Detta undersöks genom en studie av formaliseringsreformer i Rwandas 3Ts-sektor (tenn, tantal, volfram) för småskalig gruvdrift, som intensifierades från 2010. Forskningen syftar till att förklara den roll som arbetskraft, som både en social kategori och en ekonomisk faktor, spelar i formandet av formaliseringsprocessen, och hur införlivandet av informell arbetskraft påverkar tillgången till socialt skydd, en förmån som vanligtvis medför statlig reglering av ekonomiska sektorer.
Studien visar att Rwandas formaliseringsinsatser främst har fokuserat på att kontrollera mineralproduktionsprocessen genom att etablera och reglera investerarkooperativ och företag, samtidigt som arbetskraften till stor del har lämnats informell. Med utgångspunkt i analytiska ramverk från litteraturen om reglering av informella ekonomier, analys av arbetsmarknadsregimer och socialt skydd i utvecklingspolitiken, erbjuder studien en ny analys av dessa resultat. I motsats till den rådande uppfattningen i ASM-litteraturen - att informell arbetskraft i formaliserade sektorer återspeglar misslyckad politik eller ofullständiga reformer - visar denna forskning att informell arbetskraft i Rwanda har spelat en underlättande roll för att uppnå landets höga formaliseringsgrad.
I Rwanda har formaliseringen visserligen medfört vissa fördelar för gruvarbetarna, till exempel förbättrade säkerhetsstandarder på arbetsplatsen och en allmän känsla av driftsäkerhet, men tillgången till lagstadgade sociala skydd, till exempel olycksfallsförsäkring, är fortfarande begränsad på grund av den ihållande informella arbetskraften, vilket i slutändan missgynnar gruvarbetarna. Konceptuellt bidrar denna studie till ASM-forskningen genom att belysa kopplingen mellan statlig reglering av produktion och socialt skydd - och därmed skärningspunkten mellan ekonomisk och social politik. Metodologiskt främjar den en politiserad analys av formalisering, som går bortom förklaringar om ”institutionell (o)effektivitet” för att visa hur ASM-reglering medför avvägningar med ekonomisk lönsamhet och sektoriell tillväxt. (Less)
Please use this url to cite or link to this publication:
https://lup.lub.lu.se/record/79ae2e26-8020-43b1-88c3-201b7c4b7099
- author
- Rushemuka, Maxime LU
- supervisor
-
- Muriel Côte LU
- Ola Hall LU
- opponent
-
- Professor Fisher, Eleanor, Nordic Africa Institute
- organization
- alternative title
- Förändringar i arbetsförhållanden och arbetstagarnas sociala skydd : En studie av formaliseringsprocessen för den småskaliga gruvsektorn 3Ts i Rwanda
- publishing date
- 2025-11
- type
- Thesis
- publication status
- published
- subject
- keywords
- Labour relations, Informal economy, Artisanal and small-scale mining sector, Social protection, Rwanda
- pages
- 102 pages
- publisher
- Department of Human Geography, Lund University
- defense location
- Världen (111), Geocentrum I, Sölvegatan 10, Lund
- defense date
- 2025-12-12 13:00:00
- ISBN
- 978-91-8104-735-6
- 978-91-8104-734-9
- project
- Frontier Settlements: Territories of artisan mining labour in Africa
- language
- English
- LU publication?
- yes
- id
- 79ae2e26-8020-43b1-88c3-201b7c4b7099
- date added to LUP
- 2025-11-11 11:21:23
- date last changed
- 2025-11-19 08:21:33
@phdthesis{79ae2e26-8020-43b1-88c3-201b7c4b7099,
abstract = {{This study explores a common issue in developing countries – the persistence of informal labour relations when the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector is brought under state control. It investigates this through a study of formalisation reforms in Rwanda’s 3Ts (tin, tantalum, tungsten) small-scale mining sector, which intensified from 2010. The research aims to explain the role that labour, as both a social category and an economic factor, plays in shaping the formalisation process, and how the incorporation of informal labour affects access to social protection, a benefit typically entailed in the state regulation of economic sectors.<br/><br/>The study finds that Rwanda’s formalisation efforts have primarily focused on controlling the mineral production process by establishing and regulating investors’ cooperatives and companies, while largely leaving the workforce informal. Grounded in analytical frameworks from the literature on informal economy regulation, labour regime analysis, and social protection in development policy, the study offers a novel analysis of these findings. Contrary to the prevailing view in ASM literature – that informal labour in formalised sectors reflects policy failure or incomplete reform – this research shows that, in Rwanda, workforce informality has played a facilitative role in achieving the country’s high rate of formalisation.<br/><br/>In Rwanda, while formalisation has brought some benefits to miners, such as improved workplace safety standards and a general sense of operational security, access to legally mandated social protections, such as accident insurance, remains limited due to persistent labour informality, ultimately disadvantaging miners. Conceptually, this study contributes to ASM research by highlighting the link between state regulation of production and social protection – thus, the intersection of economic and social policy. Methodologically, it advances a politicised analysis of formalisation, moving beyond “institutional (in)effectiveness” explanations to show how ASM regulation entails trade-offs with economic profitability and sectoral growth.}},
author = {{Rushemuka, Maxime}},
isbn = {{978-91-8104-735-6}},
keywords = {{Labour relations; Informal economy; Artisanal and small-scale mining sector; Social protection; Rwanda}},
language = {{eng}},
publisher = {{Department of Human Geography, Lund University}},
school = {{Lund University}},
title = {{Labour regime changes and workers’ social protection : A study of the 3Ts small-scale mining sector formalisation process in Rwanda}},
url = {{https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/232718826/Maxime_Rushemuka_WEBB.pdf}},
year = {{2025}},
}