Skip to main content

Lund University Publications

LUND UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

Child labour and health hazards: chemical exposure and occupational injuries in Nicaraguan children working in a waste disposal site

Cuadra, Steven LU (2005)
Abstract
About 600 children and teenagers work at Managua's landfill, the largest in Nicaragua. They collect and sort waste at the open dump, which covers an area of 7 km2 on the outskirts of the city on the shores of Lake Managua. Such work, which occurs in many large cities in developing countries, is considered to be one of the riskiest types of child labor that exists. Nevertheless, knowledge of such work and its risks is lacking.
We investigated chemical exposure and risk of injury among 103 child laborers aged 6 to 15 years from Managua's landfill. Almost half of the children also lived in the dump area itself, while the rest lived in a nearby area, Acahualinca. For comparison, 102 children from Acahualinca and 34 children from central... (More)
About 600 children and teenagers work at Managua's landfill, the largest in Nicaragua. They collect and sort waste at the open dump, which covers an area of 7 km2 on the outskirts of the city on the shores of Lake Managua. Such work, which occurs in many large cities in developing countries, is considered to be one of the riskiest types of child labor that exists. Nevertheless, knowledge of such work and its risks is lacking.
We investigated chemical exposure and risk of injury among 103 child laborers aged 6 to 15 years from Managua's landfill. Almost half of the children also lived in the dump area itself, while the rest lived in a nearby area, Acahualinca. For comparison, 102 children from Acahualinca and 34 children from central Managua, 10 km away, who did not work at the dump, were also studied. This provided the opportunity to also study the environmental exposure from the landfill. The children were interviewed about living conditions, working conditions, and all injuries that occurred at workplaces, at school, and at home during the last 12 months. They had to provide blood samples for examination of the levels of, among other things, heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, and persistent organic environmental toxins such as pesticides and PCBs. We also investigated the levels of a relatively new organic environmental poison, the brominated flame retardant PBDE. At a later stage, soil samples were also collected from the landfill area and from Acahualinca for investigation of metal content.
The children who worked at the landfill had higher levels of lead, mercury, and cadmium than the children in the comparison groups. One-third had blood lead levels higher than 100 μg/l, a level where measures to reduce exposure are clearly recommended. We also found that the children in the nearby residential area had higher lead levels than the children from central Managua. Although mercury levels were higher among the child workers, the levels were not such that they could be considered a present and clear health risk. Consumption of fish from Lake Managua only slightly affected mercury levels. The levels of several of the organic environmental toxins, especially PCBs, were also higher among the child workers than in the comparison groups. We know that PCBs, which have long been banned in the West, are still used in Central America, or stored in uncontrolled forms. The children in the comparison groups also had clearly higher levels of a breakdown product of the pesticide DDT and of PCBs than children in the USA and Western Europe. The levels of these substances are steadily decreasing in the Western world. There is extremely limited knowledge of how the development over time looks like in Central and Latin America because too few surveys have been carried out. Unexpectedly, we found extremely high levels of PBDEs among the children living and working at the dump, higher than previously reported. The children in the comparison groups also had unexpectedly high levels of these substances. This is the first investigation of human PBDE levels in Central and Latin America, and the findings clearly show that it is extremely important to study the spread of the new environmental toxins also in non-industrialized countries and among particularly vulnerable groups. Several of the different substances that we studied are toxic to reproduction, and they can negatively affect human reproduction and fetal development. It would therefore have been desirable to be able to make a balanced risk assessment, but this is not possible because there is a lack of knowledge about the synergistic effects of the substances, and especially about how other factors such as inadequate nutrition can further affect the risk picture. What is clear, however, is that the levels we found among the children are significant from a reproductive perspective, as many of the girls we surveyed will be mothers in a few years - a fifth of Managua's teenagers are pregnant or have given birth already.
Injuries, which caused at least one day of absence from school or work, were seven times more common among the children working at the dump than among the children in the comparison groups. The vast majority of injuries occurred during work, corresponding to 2.2 injuries per 1000 working days. The children reported that approximately one in ten injuries had resulted in permanent disability or pain. We analyzed the injuries that occurred to clarify whether there were any clear injury patterns. Cuts and puncture wounds to the hands and feet in connection with material handling were most common and caused 70% of the injuries. This shows that simple protective measures – many children lack shoes and no one has gloves – could reduce the risk of injury. However, the most serious damage was caused by the vehicles at the dump.
In our studies, we have wanted to measure exposure levels and quantify risks in order to clarify the situation of child workers, in the hope that increased knowledge and awareness can eventually contribute to change. We have also gained valuable knowledge about the levels of several common environmental toxins among ordinary poor city children in a developing country. This is something that has so far been too inadequately investigated.
(Less)
Abstract (Swedish)
Omkring 600 barn och tonåringar arbetar på Managuas stora soptipp, denbstörsta i Nicaragua. De samlar och sorterar avfall på den öppna tippen, sombtäcker ett 7 km2 stort område i stadens utkant vid stranden av Managuasjön. Sådant arbete, som förekommer i många stora städer i utvecklingsländer, ansesbvara ett av de mest riskfyllda typerna av barnarbete som finns. Ändå är kunskapen om sådant arbete och dess risker bristfällig.
Vi har undersökt kemisk exponering och risk för skador bland 103 barnarbetare i åldrarna 6 till 15 år från Managuas soptipp. Nästan hälften av barnen bodde också på själva soptippsområdet, medan de övriga bodde i ett närliggande område, Acahualinca. För jämförelse studerades också 102 barn från Acahualinca och 34... (More)
Omkring 600 barn och tonåringar arbetar på Managuas stora soptipp, denbstörsta i Nicaragua. De samlar och sorterar avfall på den öppna tippen, sombtäcker ett 7 km2 stort område i stadens utkant vid stranden av Managuasjön. Sådant arbete, som förekommer i många stora städer i utvecklingsländer, ansesbvara ett av de mest riskfyllda typerna av barnarbete som finns. Ändå är kunskapen om sådant arbete och dess risker bristfällig.
Vi har undersökt kemisk exponering och risk för skador bland 103 barnarbetare i åldrarna 6 till 15 år från Managuas soptipp. Nästan hälften av barnen bodde också på själva soptippsområdet, medan de övriga bodde i ett närliggande område, Acahualinca. För jämförelse studerades också 102 barn från Acahualinca och 34 barn från centrala Managua, 10 km längre bort, som inte arbetade på soptippen. Detta gav möjlighet att också studera omgivningsexponeringen från soptippen. Barnen intervjuades om levnadsförhållanden, arbetsförhållanden och om alla inträffade skador på arbetsplatser, i skola och i hemmet under de senaste 12 månaderna. De fick lämna blodprov för undersökning av halterna av bland annat de toxiska metallerna bly, kvicksilver och kadmium, och långlivade organiska miljögifter som bekämpningsmedel och PCB. Vi undersökte också halterna av ett relativt nytt organiskt miljögift, det bromerade flamskyddsmedlet PBDE. I ett senare skede insamlades också jordprover från soptippsområdet och från Acahualinca för undersökning av metallinnehåll.
Barnen som arbetade på soptippen hade högre halter av bly, kvicksilver och kadmium än barnen i jämförelsegrupperna. En tredjedel hade högre blodblyhalter än 100 μg/l, en nivå där åtgärder för att minska exponeringen klart rekommenderas. Vi fann också att barnen i det närliggande bostadsområdet hade högre blyhalter än barnen från centrala Managua. Även om kvicksilverhalterna var högre bland barnarbetarna, var nivåerna inte sådana att de kan anses innebära någon hälsorisk. Konsumtion av fisk från Managuasjön påverkade kvicksilverhalterna endast obetydligt. Halterna av flera av de organiska miljögifterna, särskilt PCB, var också högre bland barnarbetarna än i jämförelsegrupperna. Vi vet att PCB, som sedan länge varit förbjudet i västvärlden, fortfarande används i Centralamerika, eller lagras under okontrollerade former. Också barnen i jämförelsegrupperna hade klart högre halter av en nedbrytningsprodukt av bekämpningsmedlet DDT och av PCB än barn i USA och Västeuropa. Halterna av dessa ämnen är I stadigt minskande i västvärlden. Man har ytterligt begränsad kunskap om hur utvecklingen över tid ser ut i Central- och Latinamerika, eftersom alltför få undersökningar har gjorts. Helt oväntat fann vi extremt höga halter av PBDE bland barnen som bor och arbetar på soptippen, högre än vad som tidigare har rapporterats. Också barnen i jämförelsegrupperna hade oväntat höga halter av dessa ämnen. Detta är den första undersökningen av människors PBDE-halter i Central- och Latinamerika, och fynden visar tydligt att det är ytterligt angeläget att studera spridningen av de nya miljögifterna även I ickeindustrialiserade länder och bland särskilt utsatta grupper. Flera av de olika ämnen som vi studerade är reproduktionstoxiska, det vill saga kan påverkar människors fortplantning och fosterutveckling negativt. Det hade därför varit önskvärt att kunna göra en sammanvägd riskbedömning, men detta är inte möjligt eftersom det saknas kunskaper om ämnenas samverkanseffekter, och alldeles särskilt om hur andra faktorer såsom bristfällig nutrition ytterligare kan påverka riskbilden. Helt klart är dock att de nivåer som vi fann bland barnen är betydelsefulla utifrån ett reproduktionsperspektiv, eftersom många av flickorna vi undersökte kommer att vara mödrar om några år – en femtedel av Managuas tonåringar är gravida eller har fatt barn.
Skador, som orsakat minst en dags frånvaro från skolan eller arbetet var sju gånger vanligare bland barnen som arbetar på soptippen än bland barnen I jämförelsegrupperna. De allra flesta skadorna inträffade under arbetet, motsvarande 2,2 skador per 1000 arbetsdagar. Barnen rapporterade att ungefär var tionde skada hade lett till kvarstående funktionsbortfall eller smärta. Vi analyserade de inträffade skadorna för att klarlägga huruvuda det fanns några tydliga skademönster. Skär- och sticksår i händer och fötter I samband med materialhantering var vanligast, och orsakade 70 % av skadorna. Detta visar att enkla skyddsåtgärder – många barn saknar skor och ingen har handskar – skulle kunna minska skaderisken. De allra allvarligaste skadorna orsakades dock av fordonen på soptippen.
I våra studier har vi velat mäta exponeringsnivåer och kvantifiera risker för att tydliggöra barnarbetarnas situation, i förhoppning om att ökad kunskap och medvetenhet på sikt kan bidra till förändring. Vi har också fått värdefull kunskap om halterna av flera vanliga miljögifter bland helt vanliga fattiga storstadsbarn i ett u-land. Detta är något som hittills varit alltför bristfälligt undersökt.
(Less)
Please use this url to cite or link to this publication:
author
supervisor
organization
publishing date
type
Thesis
publication status
published
subject
keywords
child labor, waste disposal sites, health hazards, heavy metals, persistent organochlorine pollutants, brominated flame retardants, occupational injuries, Nicaragua, barnarbete, avfallshanteringsplatser, hälsorisker, tungmetaller, beständiga klororganiska föroreningar, bromerade flamskyddsmedel, yrkesskador, Nicaragua
pages
67 pages
ISBN
91-631-7678-5
language
English
LU publication?
yes
id
bdaeffa2-0c63-4383-8b1b-f6c6fe94b81b
date added to LUP
2022-09-05 14:20:46
date last changed
2022-09-07 15:29:15
@misc{bdaeffa2-0c63-4383-8b1b-f6c6fe94b81b,
  abstract     = {{About 600 children and teenagers work at Managua's landfill, the largest in Nicaragua. They collect and sort waste at the open dump, which covers an area of 7 km2 on the outskirts of the city on the shores of Lake Managua. Such work, which occurs in many large cities in developing countries, is considered to be one of the riskiest types of child labor that exists. Nevertheless, knowledge of such work and its risks is lacking.<br/>We investigated chemical exposure and risk of injury among 103 child laborers aged 6 to 15 years from Managua's landfill. Almost half of the children also lived in the dump area itself, while the rest lived in a nearby area, Acahualinca. For comparison, 102 children from Acahualinca and 34 children from central Managua, 10 km away, who did not work at the dump, were also studied. This provided the opportunity to also study the environmental exposure from the landfill. The children were interviewed about living conditions, working conditions, and all injuries that occurred at workplaces, at school, and at home during the last 12 months. They had to provide blood samples for examination of the levels of, among other things, heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, and persistent organic environmental toxins such as pesticides and PCBs. We also investigated the levels of a relatively new organic environmental poison, the brominated flame retardant PBDE. At a later stage, soil samples were also collected from the landfill area and from Acahualinca for investigation of metal content.<br/>The children who worked at the landfill had higher levels of lead, mercury, and cadmium than the children in the comparison groups. One-third had blood lead levels higher than 100 μg/l, a level where measures to reduce exposure are clearly recommended. We also found that the children in the nearby residential area had higher lead levels than the children from central Managua. Although mercury levels were higher among the child workers, the levels were not such that they could be considered a present and clear health risk. Consumption of fish from Lake Managua only slightly affected mercury levels. The levels of several of the organic environmental toxins, especially PCBs, were also higher among the child workers than in the comparison groups. We know that PCBs, which have long been banned in the West, are still used in Central America, or stored in uncontrolled forms. The children in the comparison groups also had clearly higher levels of a breakdown product of the pesticide DDT and of PCBs than children in the USA and Western Europe. The levels of these substances are steadily decreasing in the Western world. There is extremely limited knowledge of how the development over time looks like in Central and Latin America because too few surveys have been carried out. Unexpectedly, we found extremely high levels of PBDEs among the children living and working at the dump, higher than previously reported. The children in the comparison groups also had unexpectedly high levels of these substances. This is the first investigation of human PBDE levels in Central and Latin America, and the findings clearly show that it is extremely important to study the spread of the new environmental toxins also in non-industrialized countries and among particularly vulnerable groups. Several of the different substances that we studied are toxic to reproduction, and they can negatively affect human reproduction and fetal development. It would therefore have been desirable to be able to make a balanced risk assessment, but this is not possible because there is a lack of knowledge about the synergistic effects of the substances, and especially about how other factors such as inadequate nutrition can further affect the risk picture. What is clear, however, is that the levels we found among the children are significant from a reproductive perspective, as many of the girls we surveyed will be mothers in a few years - a fifth of Managua's teenagers are pregnant or have given birth already.<br/>Injuries, which caused at least one day of absence from school or work, were seven times more common among the children working at the dump than among the children in the comparison groups. The vast majority of injuries occurred during work, corresponding to 2.2 injuries per 1000 working days. The children reported that approximately one in ten injuries had resulted in permanent disability or pain. We analyzed the injuries that occurred to clarify whether there were any clear injury patterns. Cuts and puncture wounds to the hands and feet in connection with material handling were most common and caused 70% of the injuries. This shows that simple protective measures – many children lack shoes and no one has gloves – could reduce the risk of injury. However, the most serious damage was caused by the vehicles at the dump.<br/>In our studies, we have wanted to measure exposure levels and quantify risks in order to clarify the situation of child workers, in the hope that increased knowledge and awareness can eventually contribute to change. We have also gained valuable knowledge about the levels of several common environmental toxins among ordinary poor city children in a developing country. This is something that has so far been too inadequately investigated.<br/>}},
  author       = {{Cuadra, Steven}},
  isbn         = {{91-631-7678-5}},
  keywords     = {{child labor; waste disposal sites; health hazards; heavy metals; persistent organochlorine pollutants; brominated flame retardants; occupational injuries; Nicaragua; barnarbete; avfallshanteringsplatser; hälsorisker; tungmetaller; beständiga klororganiska föroreningar; bromerade flamskyddsmedel; yrkesskador; Nicaragua}},
  language     = {{eng}},
  note         = {{Licentiate Thesis}},
  title        = {{Child labour and health hazards: chemical exposure and occupational injuries in Nicaraguan children working in a waste disposal site}},
  year         = {{2005}},
}