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Fault-Based Liability and Autonomy: An Analysis of Negligence in the Context of Autonomous Shipping

Dangardt, Albin LU (2026) JURM02 20261
Department of Law
Faculty of Law
Abstract
The development of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (‘MASS’) presents significant challenges to the existing framework of maritime liability law. Fault-based liability and the concept of negligence are traditionally structured around the assessment of human conduct, decision-making and control. This raises the question of whether negligence and fault remain conceptually coherent where operational decisions are made by autonomous systems rather than by human actors. This thesis examines how the degree of human involvement in MASS operations affects the assessment of negligence under the fault-based liability framework, whether the framework remains coherent at the higher degrees of autonomy and to what extent strict liability and product... (More)
The development of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (‘MASS’) presents significant challenges to the existing framework of maritime liability law. Fault-based liability and the concept of negligence are traditionally structured around the assessment of human conduct, decision-making and control. This raises the question of whether negligence and fault remain conceptually coherent where operational decisions are made by autonomous systems rather than by human actors. This thesis examines how the degree of human involvement in MASS operations affects the assessment of negligence under the fault-based liability framework, whether the framework remains coherent at the higher degrees of autonomy and to what extent strict liability and product liability may provide viable alternative frameworks.

The analysis is conducted using a legal dogmatic method, relying on international maritime conventions, including SOLAS, the COLREGs and the STCW Convention, as well as legal doctrine, legal principles and recent regulatory developments within the International Maritime Organization (‘IMO’), particularly the IMO Draft MASS Code. The thesis demonstrates that the degree of human involvement in the operation of the vessel is decisive for the assessment of negligence. At degrees 2 and 3 of autonomy, where human actors remain involved in navigational control or retain the practical ability to monitor and intervene, the fault-based framework may remain coherent, although its application becomes more complex. In particular, autonomous operation raises questions regarding the responsibilities of the shore-based controllers, the allocation of operational control and the conditions under which a duty to intervene can practically be fulfilled.

At degree 4 of autonomy, where the vessel operates without human involvement in the operational decision-making process, the application of negligence becomes conceptually strained as there may be no human conduct to assess in relation to navigational negligence. Duties relating to ship management, seaworthiness and vessel maintenance may still provide a partial basis for fault in some cases but do not cover all instances in which damage results from autonomous navigation or technical defects. In addition, the IMO Draft MASS Code’s mandatory master requirement preserves a human duty-holder within the regulatory framework but may be insufficient where the master does not have effective control over the autonomous operation of the vessel. In this respect, the mandatory master requirement represents an important regulatory response but attempts to preserve the fault-based structure without ensuring the human control on which it depends.

The thesis further demonstrates that strict liability and product liability offer only partial responses to these issues. Whilst strict liability may resolve the issues of fault attribution by removing the need to establish fault, it departs from the underlying fault-based structure of collision liability. Product liability provides a closer connection to autonomous technology but remains dependent on proving defects and causation. Neither framework therefore fully resolves the structural limitations of a liability framework based on human fault in the context of autonomous decision-making.

The thesis concludes that fault-based liability should not be replaced by an alternative framework. Instead, its rules of attribution should be adapted to reflect autonomous operation, so that collisions caused by technical defects or autonomous decisions during fully autonomous navigation should not fail to result in liability merely because no negligent human actor can be identified. The concept of negligence may therefore remain coherent, provided that the standard of care can be applied to autonomous decisions and the systems through which they are made and executed. (Less)
Abstract (Swedish)
Utvecklingen av autonoma fartyg (‘MASS’) innebär betydande utmaningar
för det befintliga systemet för sjörättsligt ansvar. Culpabaserat ansvar och begreppet vårdslöshet är traditionellt uppbyggda kring bedömningen av mänskligt handlande, beslutsfattande och kontroll. Detta väcker frågor om huruvida
vårdslöshet och culpa fortfarande är begreppsmässigt sammanhängande när
operativa beslut fattas av autonoma system snarare än av mänskliga aktörer.
Denna uppsats undersöker hur graden av mänsklig inblandning i driften av
autonoma fartyg påverkar bedömningen av vårdslöshet inom det culpabaserade ansvarssystemet, om detta system går att tillämpa vid högre grader av
autonomi samt i vilken utsträckning strikt ansvar och produktansvar kan... (More)
Utvecklingen av autonoma fartyg (‘MASS’) innebär betydande utmaningar
för det befintliga systemet för sjörättsligt ansvar. Culpabaserat ansvar och begreppet vårdslöshet är traditionellt uppbyggda kring bedömningen av mänskligt handlande, beslutsfattande och kontroll. Detta väcker frågor om huruvida
vårdslöshet och culpa fortfarande är begreppsmässigt sammanhängande när
operativa beslut fattas av autonoma system snarare än av mänskliga aktörer.
Denna uppsats undersöker hur graden av mänsklig inblandning i driften av
autonoma fartyg påverkar bedömningen av vårdslöshet inom det culpabaserade ansvarssystemet, om detta system går att tillämpa vid högre grader av
autonomi samt i vilken utsträckning strikt ansvar och produktansvar kan utgöra välfungerande alternativa ansvarsgrunder.

Analysen genomförs med den rättsdogmatiska metoden och utgår från internationella sjörättsliga konventioner, däribland SOLAS, COLREGs och
STCW-konventionen, samt juridisk doktrin, allmänna rättsprinciper och den
rättsliga utvecklingen inom den Internationella sjöfartsorganisationen
(‘IMO’), särskilt utkastet till den frivilliga MASS-koden. Undersökningen visar att graden av mänsklig inblandning i fartygets drift är avgörande för bedömningen av vårdslöshet. Vid autonomigrad 2 och 3, där mänskliga aktörer
fortsatt utövar kontroll över fartygets navigation eller har en praktisk möjlighet att övervaka och ingripa, kan det culpabaserade ansvarssystemet förbli
tillämpligt, även om denna tillämpning blir mer komplex än för traditionella
fartyg. I synnerhet väcker autonom navigering av fartyg frågor om ansvar för
fjärroperatörer, fördelningen av operativ kontroll och de förutsättningar under
vilka skyldigheten att ingripa kan fullgöras.

Vid autonomigrad 4, där fartyget navigerar utan mänskligt inflytande över
den operativa beslutsprocessen, blir tillämpningen av vårdslöshetsbegreppet
mer ansträngd då det mänskliga handlandet som krävs för att bedöma navigationsrelaterad vårdslöshet är frånvarande. Även i detta fall utgör skyldigheter gällande driften och förvaltningen av fartyget, dess sjöduglighet och underhåll till viss del en grund för bedömningen av culpa, men detta omfattar
inte alla situationer där skada uppkommer på grund av fartygets autonoma
navigation eller tekniska fel. I denna bemärkelse utgör MASS-kodens krav på
en obligatorisk befälhavare ett mänskligt ansvarssubjekt inom det rättsliga
ramverket, men detta krav kan vara en otillräcklig ansvarsgrund i de fall befälhavaren saknar faktiska möjligheter att utöva kontroll över fartygets autonoma drift. Kravet utgör således ett viktigt rättsligt svar på de utmaningar som
autonoma fartyg står inför, men försöker bevara den culpabaserade strukturen
utan att nödvändigtvis kunna säkerställa den mänskliga kontroll som det
culpabaserade ansvarssystemet förutsätter.

Undersökningen visar vidare att strikt ansvar och produktansvar endast löser
dessa problem till viss del. Strikt ansvar kan lösa vissa frågor om ansvarshänförande genom att upphäva kravet på att fastställa culpa, men avviker samtidigt från kollisionsansvarets culpabaserade struktur. Produktansvar bidrar med en närmare koppling till dessa fartygs autonoma teknik, men
förutsätter att defekter och orsakssamband kan bevisas. Ingen av dessa ansvarsgrunder kan därmed lösa culpaansvarets strukturella begränsningar rörande mänskligt vållande fullt ut i ett sammanhang där beslut fattas autonomt.

Det konstateras därmed att det culpabaserade ansvaret inte bör ersättas av en
alternativ ansvarsgrund. I stället bör reglerna om ansvarshänförande anpassas
för att återspegla den autonoma driften, så att kollisioner som orsakas av autonoma beslut eller tekniska fel vid fullt autonom fartygsdrift inte undgår ansvar enbart på grund av en avsaknad av vårdslöst mänskligt handlande. Vårdslöshetsbegreppet kan därmed förbli tillämpligt och sammanhängande, förutsatt
att de sjörättsliga aktsamhetskraven kan tillämpas på autonoma beslut och systemen genom vilka sådana beslut fattas och verkställs. (Less)
Please use this url to cite or link to this publication:
author
Dangardt, Albin LU
supervisor
organization
course
JURM02 20261
year
type
H3 - Professional qualifications (4 Years - )
subject
keywords
Förmögenhetsrätt, Private Law, Sjörätt, Transporträtt
language
English
id
9227524
date added to LUP
2026-06-11 17:53:05
date last changed
2026-06-11 17:53:05
@misc{9227524,
  abstract     = {{The development of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (‘MASS’) presents significant challenges to the existing framework of maritime liability law. Fault-based liability and the concept of negligence are traditionally structured around the assessment of human conduct, decision-making and control. This raises the question of whether negligence and fault remain conceptually coherent where operational decisions are made by autonomous systems rather than by human actors. This thesis examines how the degree of human involvement in MASS operations affects the assessment of negligence under the fault-based liability framework, whether the framework remains coherent at the higher degrees of autonomy and to what extent strict liability and product liability may provide viable alternative frameworks.

The analysis is conducted using a legal dogmatic method, relying on international maritime conventions, including SOLAS, the COLREGs and the STCW Convention, as well as legal doctrine, legal principles and recent regulatory developments within the International Maritime Organization (‘IMO’), particularly the IMO Draft MASS Code. The thesis demonstrates that the degree of human involvement in the operation of the vessel is decisive for the assessment of negligence. At degrees 2 and 3 of autonomy, where human actors remain involved in navigational control or retain the practical ability to monitor and intervene, the fault-based framework may remain coherent, although its application becomes more complex. In particular, autonomous operation raises questions regarding the responsibilities of the shore-based controllers, the allocation of operational control and the conditions under which a duty to intervene can practically be fulfilled.

At degree 4 of autonomy, where the vessel operates without human involvement in the operational decision-making process, the application of negligence becomes conceptually strained as there may be no human conduct to assess in relation to navigational negligence. Duties relating to ship management, seaworthiness and vessel maintenance may still provide a partial basis for fault in some cases but do not cover all instances in which damage results from autonomous navigation or technical defects. In addition, the IMO Draft MASS Code’s mandatory master requirement preserves a human duty-holder within the regulatory framework but may be insufficient where the master does not have effective control over the autonomous operation of the vessel. In this respect, the mandatory master requirement represents an important regulatory response but attempts to preserve the fault-based structure without ensuring the human control on which it depends.

The thesis further demonstrates that strict liability and product liability offer only partial responses to these issues. Whilst strict liability may resolve the issues of fault attribution by removing the need to establish fault, it departs from the underlying fault-based structure of collision liability. Product liability provides a closer connection to autonomous technology but remains dependent on proving defects and causation. Neither framework therefore fully resolves the structural limitations of a liability framework based on human fault in the context of autonomous decision-making.

The thesis concludes that fault-based liability should not be replaced by an alternative framework. Instead, its rules of attribution should be adapted to reflect autonomous operation, so that collisions caused by technical defects or autonomous decisions during fully autonomous navigation should not fail to result in liability merely because no negligent human actor can be identified. The concept of negligence may therefore remain coherent, provided that the standard of care can be applied to autonomous decisions and the systems through which they are made and executed.}},
  author       = {{Dangardt, Albin}},
  language     = {{eng}},
  note         = {{Student Paper}},
  title        = {{Fault-Based Liability and Autonomy: An Analysis of Negligence in the Context of Autonomous Shipping}},
  year         = {{2026}},
}