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Who outsources domestic work in the Swedish welfare state? The role of absolute and relative resources

Dalman, Elien LU orcid ; Nilsson, Therese LU ; Elwert, Annika LU orcid ; Edling, Christofer LU orcid and Eklund, Lisa LU (2026) p.1-45
Abstract
Drawing on social stratification and relative resource theory, and gender ideology theory, this article investigates how class and gender shape outsourcing domestic work patterns within the Swedish welfare state, a forerunner in terms of gender equality. Using full-population longitudinal administrative registers from 2007 to 2022, we include individual-level information on domestic outsourcing following a generous tax deduction reform in 2007. The results reveal a strong class gradient in outsourcing,
something which has shrunk markedly over time, suggesting a normative shift towards increased acceptance of domestic services. Regardless of absolute and relative resources, women outsource more than men. Multivariate analyses... (More)
Drawing on social stratification and relative resource theory, and gender ideology theory, this article investigates how class and gender shape outsourcing domestic work patterns within the Swedish welfare state, a forerunner in terms of gender equality. Using full-population longitudinal administrative registers from 2007 to 2022, we include individual-level information on domestic outsourcing following a generous tax deduction reform in 2007. The results reveal a strong class gradient in outsourcing,
something which has shrunk markedly over time, suggesting a normative shift towards increased acceptance of domestic services. Regardless of absolute and relative resources, women outsource more than men. Multivariate analyses demonstrate outsourcing to be most common among (single and partnered) mothers, while childless singles rarely outsource domestic work. In couple-level analyses we demonstrate that outsourcing is not only shaped by absolute resources and time constraints, but also by gender ideology and relative resources. Without recognizing this intersection, analyses risk overstating the role of income while overlooking how relative resources and time constraint determine outsourcing. Specifically, results show that women who out-earn their partners outsource more, rather than renegotiating the within-couple division of unpaid labor. This suggests that outsourcing may be conducive to upholding the first phase of the gender revolution, by enabling women to pursue their high(er)-earning jobs, while hampering the second phase by removing incentives for men’s greater engagement in unpaid housework. By showing that couples from higher-class origins outsource more at a given income, we highlight how outsourcing may reinforce rather than reduce class as well as gender
divides. The article further puts forward directions for future research. (Less)
Please use this url to cite or link to this publication:
author
; ; ; and
organization
publishing date
type
Working paper/Preprint
publication status
epub
subject
keywords
Domestic work, Outsourcing, Paid and unpaid work, Gender revolution, Class, bargaining power
pages
1 - 45
publisher
SocArXiv
DOI
10.31235/osf.io/xbm8a_v1
project
Förändrade köns- och klassrelationer i kölvattnet av RUT och ROT-användning
language
English
LU publication?
yes
id
02a003b9-60cf-4552-8269-41c9b1070217
date added to LUP
2026-06-18 10:04:50
date last changed
2026-06-18 13:09:47
@misc{02a003b9-60cf-4552-8269-41c9b1070217,
  abstract     = {{Drawing on social stratification and relative resource theory, and gender ideology theory, this article investigates how class and gender shape outsourcing domestic work patterns within the Swedish welfare state, a forerunner in terms of gender equality. Using full-population longitudinal administrative registers from 2007 to 2022, we include individual-level information on domestic outsourcing following a generous tax deduction reform in 2007. The results reveal a strong class gradient in outsourcing,<br/>something which has shrunk markedly over time, suggesting a normative shift towards increased acceptance of domestic services. Regardless of absolute and relative resources, women outsource more than men. Multivariate analyses demonstrate outsourcing to be most common among (single and partnered) mothers, while childless singles rarely outsource domestic work. In couple-level analyses we demonstrate that outsourcing is not only shaped by absolute resources and time constraints, but also by gender ideology and relative resources. Without recognizing this intersection, analyses risk overstating the role of income while overlooking how relative resources and time constraint determine outsourcing. Specifically, results show that women who out-earn their partners outsource more, rather than renegotiating the within-couple division of unpaid labor. This suggests that outsourcing may be conducive to upholding the first phase of the gender revolution, by enabling women to pursue their high(er)-earning jobs, while hampering the second phase by removing incentives for men’s greater engagement in unpaid housework. By showing that couples from higher-class origins outsource more at a given income, we highlight how outsourcing may reinforce rather than reduce class as well as gender<br/>divides. The article further puts forward directions for future research.}},
  author       = {{Dalman, Elien and Nilsson, Therese and Elwert, Annika and Edling, Christofer and Eklund, Lisa}},
  keywords     = {{Domestic work; Outsourcing; Paid and unpaid work; Gender revolution; Class; bargaining power}},
  language     = {{eng}},
  month        = {{06}},
  note         = {{Preprint}},
  pages        = {{1--45}},
  publisher    = {{SocArXiv}},
  title        = {{Who outsources domestic work in the Swedish welfare state?  The role of absolute and relative resources}},
  url          = {{http://dx.doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/xbm8a_v1}},
  doi          = {{10.31235/osf.io/xbm8a_v1}},
  year         = {{2026}},
}